Glaciers in the tropics and their environmental consequences. A t least one-third of the Himalayan glaciers, among the world's most vital water resources, are projected to melt by the end of the century even if the most ambitions steps to halt global . This book can serve as a source of reference at the undergraduate and graduate level and help to better understand snow, ice and glaciers. The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China, Nepal and Bhutan, indicates that glaciers have been . Credit: Stephan Harrison Some Himalayan glaciers are more resilient to global . Not just this, the region is expected to lose half of its . Like the Arctic and part of Antarctica, the Hindu Kush Himalayan region is warming faster than the global average, and for similar reasons. Found insideSengupta spotlights these stories of ordinary men and women, weaving together a groundbreaking portrait of a country in turmoil. Melting of glaciers can be a threat to water and food security and increase the risks of disasters. At least one-third of the Himalayan glaciers will disappear by the end of the century even if countries entirely curb their greenhouse gas emissions by . Black Carbon Deposits on Himalayan Ice Threaten Earth's "Third Pole". All the glaciers (Valley) in the Himalaya have retreated by approximately a kilometer since the Little Ice Age [AD 1550-1850] (Mool P.K et al, 2001a). The world's glaciers are melting . Researchers calculated the amount of melting likely to result from warmer temperatures to confirm that one degree was indeed enough to produce such a massive loss of glacier ice. "If it had not been the focus of so much public opinion, we would have said 'we will do better next time'. Found inside – Page iThis open access volume is the first comprehensive assessment of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) region. These rivers receive significant contributions from the snow and glacier melt of the Himalayas, which provides the main basis for both surface and groundwater irrigation; The Himalayan mountains also store large amounts of groundwater, which contributes to both surface water and groundwater recharge in the downstream basins This is the first comprehensive look at what’s happened to glaciers in the Himalaya over a 40-year time span, said lead author Joshua Maurer at Columbia University's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. This text brings together meteorology and the theory of glacier flow, providing a fundamental understanding of how glaciers respond to climate change. Almost of all of glacier melt is in the ablation zone, and in many cases, ice loss is accelerated by calving. Please be respectful of copyright. Kirby, A. Himalayan Glaciers: Climate Change, Water Resources, and Water Security makes recommendations and sets guidelines for the future of climate change and water security in the Himalayan Region. Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast as last century: study; Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast as last century: study The Himalayas has been losing about 8.3 billion tons (7.5 billion metric tons) of ice a year, compared 4.3 billion tons (3.9 billion metric tons) a year between 1975 and 2000, according to the study. Melting Himalayan glaciers forming thousands of lakes, but not all water drains downstream. The scientists combined declassified US spy satellite images from the mid-1970s with modern satellite data to create the first detailed, four-decade record of ice along the 2,000km (1,200-mile) mountain chain. published in the journal Science Advances, third of the ice in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya ranges was already doomed to melt, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Either way, serious consequences will be felt by those who rely on the great rivers that flow from the peaks into India, Pakistan, China and other nations. Protecting the Himalayan Glaciers. “A one degree C increase is a huge change,” says co-author Joerg Schaefer, a professor at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory. "They can't attack the science so they attack the chairman. The chair of the IPCC, Rajendra Pachauri, has made no personal comment on the glacier claim: But yesterday, at an energy conference in Abu Dhabi, he responded to British newspaper articles criticising his chairmanship of the IPCC. Found insideThis lavish collection showcases Blitt's most iconic New Yorker covers, from the infamous Obama fist bump and George W. Bush's drowning cabinet to the many misadventures of Donald Trump. “Increasingly uncertain and irregular water supplies will impact the 1 billion people living downstream from the Himalaya mountains in south Asia.”. Now the first complete study of this remote region reveals that its glaciers lost billions of tons of ice—equivalent to more than a vertical foot and half of ice each year—from 2000 to 2016. The Himalayan Glacier Melt. The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China, Nepal and Bhutan, indicates that glaciers have been losing the equivalent of more than a vertical foot and half of ice each year since 2000 — double . The shaky science behind ivermectin as a COVID-19 cure, How symptom-free COVID-19 can silently damage the body, Experiencing nature through a creative lens, A New Yorker captures his city’s revival behind the lens of his camera. Glaciers appear on almost every continent. The glacier collapse at Joshimath on Sunday led to a massive flood in the . But it is what it is, and now we have to prepare for that scenario. Climate change and air pollution are speeding up the melting of the Himalayan glaciers . The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China, Nepal and Bhutan, indicates that glaciers have been losing the equivalent of more than a vertical foot and half of ice each year… All rights reserved, ice loss is accelerating with rising temperatures, representing 55 percent of the glacial ice, seasonal flooding and the creation of many glacial lakes. That is the challenge for the next 20 years.”, A third of Himalayan ice cap doomed, finds report. For two towns in northern India, melting glaciers have had very different impacts — one town has benefited from flowing streams and bountiful harvests; but the other has seen its water supplies dry up and now is being forced to relocate. Since the 1970s, about 15% of ice in the HKH region has disappeared as temperature have risen. We have to worry a lot, because so many people are affected. (CNN) -- The glaciers in the Himalayas are receding quicker than those in other parts of the world and could disappear altogether by 2035 according . It has been observed that the discharge of Himalayan rivers per unit area is roughly twice that of the peninsular rivers. This book is about the Himalayan ranges as a source of fresh water supply and a perennial store house of ice, snow and permafrost as well as a vast repository of rich biodiversity, in the light of climate change. And where is the extra heat from conduction coming from? The Himalayan glaciers provide a crucial source of water to billions of people. Its work is seen as the most comprehensive account of global warming. Found inside – Page iiClaudio Teitelboim Director, Centro de Estudios Cientfficos Valdivia, September 2001 v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This volume is the result of the effort and generosity of many people and institutions. Melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled since the start of the 21st century due to rising temperatures, losing over a vertical foot and half of ice each year and potentially threatening water . (2015). Without action, two-thirds would go. The seasonal runoff from Himalayan glaciers, to some degree, provides different water services to about 800 million people for the purposes including irrigation, hydropower and drinking water. However, the extent of this melting remains difficult to assess from ground surveys owing to the great number of glaciers, the. The number of glaciers in the Himalayan area has increased in the last five decades and this is an indicator of how severe glacier melting has been due to global warming. by Kevin Krajick. Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast since 2000 as they were in the 25 years before due to human-caused climate change, researchers reported in Science Advances in 2019. The Himalaya span 1,500 miles, passing through the nations of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Bhutan, and Nepal. The book takes real world situations, adds cutting edge economics drained off its jargon. Throws in liberal doses of common sense and plain English so that you find it sumptuous. Go ahead the world of economics seems simpler with this book. Find out how glaciers form and other interesting facts about glaciers. This volume, a follow-up of the XII International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Science, Goa (A SCAR symposium), provides new data from locales spread over the entire Himalaya region and from Tibet. On average, the glacier surfaces sank by 22cm (8.6 inches) a year from 1975 to 2000. As the ice melts, glaciers become unstable and start to retreat. The melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled since the turn of the century, with more than a quarter of all ice lost over the last four decades, scientists have revealed. The glaciers are shrinking at similar rates all along the mountain chain, indicating a common cause. A study led by Dehradun-based Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology revealed that the glaciers in Nanda Devi and central Himalayan region have significantly receded during the past 37 years. Quincey’s research project, called EverDrill, involves drilling deep into Nepal’s Khumbu Glacier and monitoring ice temperatures. Climate change and air pollution are speeding up the melting of the Himalayan glaciers, jeopardizing the lives and livelihoods of 750 million people who rely on the water from these glaciers and snows. Okavango Eternal: Protecting a natural wonder, Video Story, Copyright © 1996-2015 National Geographic Society, Copyright © 2015-2021 National Geographic Partners, LLC. This book begins by exploring the role of field data acquisition and covers the practical aspects of preparing for fieldwork, discussing key logistical considerations. The scientists used this data to track the changes in 650 Himalayan glaciers. Ice losses indicate ‘devastating’ future for region and 1 billion people who depend on it for water, Last modified on Wed 25 Aug 2021 09.50 EDT. Can we cope with peak water and peak oil at the same time? These are some of the issues Lester R. Brown skilfully distils in World on the Edge. Geoscience Frontiers, 8(1), 107-115. And as far as the Himalayan glacier is concerned, they are melting at a very accelerating rate, and not only in the Tibetan Plateau, because you have glaciers, you have permafrost. Whether this particular disaster was caused by climate change isn't known. The Himalayas is a mountain range that's home to many of the world's highest peaks. Rock glaciers will slow Himalayan ice melt. The UN's climate science body has admitted that a claim made in its 2007 report - that Himalayan glaciers could melt away by 2035 - was unfounded. This book provides information essential for anyone interested in climate and environmental change of the Himalayan region, including land and resource managers, environmental planners, conservationists, environmentalists, geographers, ... A part of the Nanda Devi glacier broke off in Uttarakhand's Chamoli district on Sunday, leading to massive floods, recalling a 2019 study that warned about the dangers of climate change and said Himalayan glaciers have been melting twice as fast since the start of this century. Oblique view of a Himalayan landscape captured by a KH-9 Hexagon satellite on 20 December 1975 on the border between eastern Nepal and Sikkim, India. Temperature data from the region also shows an average rise of 1C from 2000-16 compared with 1975-2000. Several senior scientists have now said the claim was unrealistic and that the large Himalayan glaciers could not melt in a few decades. This book offer a fascinating peep into the mind and ideas of Gandhi and his dream for a vibrant and prosperous India. Selected glaciers in India and Nepal display the typical patterns of glacial melt occurring in the Himalayas in recent years. Found inside – Page iiThis book brings together thirteen selected papers presented in the Third International Seminar on Science and Geopolitics of Arctic-Antarctic-Himalaya, held in India in September 2015. A newly comprehensive study shows that melting of Himalayan glaciers caused by rising temperatures has accelerated dramatically since the start of the 21st century. A rock glacier in the Khumbu Valley, Nepal. The Hindu Kush Himalayan region has the largest concentration of frozen water on Earth after the North Pole and South Pole, hence it is referred to as "the third pole". The increase in the number of glaciers is primarily due to glacier fragmentation — that big ones are splitting into smaller ones. Here, we quantify changes in ice thickness during the intervals 1975-2000 and 2000-2016 across the Himalayas, using a set of digital elevation models . The Himalayan Mountains are home to the highest peak in Mount Everest at 29,029 feet, but also to the third largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after Antarctica and the Arctic. Jean-Pascal van Ypersele, vice-chair of the IPCC, added that the mistake did nothing to undermine the large body of evidence that showed the climate was warming and that human activity was largely to blame. The region of Sikkum, in Nepal, shown in a 1975 by a KH-9 HEXAGON spy satellite. The evidence points to human-caused climate change being the dominant cause of the melting. Himalayan glaciers have been the focus of fierce international debate since 2009 when it emerged that the 2007 report by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) — the reports of which form the basis of international negotiations on slowing and tackling human-induced climate change — had erroneously stated that the glaciers . By Daniel Grossman • March 24, 2015. The peak of Mt. A new comprehensive study shows that the melting of Himalayan glaciers caused by rising temperatures has accelerated dramatically since the start of the 21st century. The admission today followed a New Scientist article last week that revealed the source of the claim made in the 2007 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was not peer-reviewed scientific literature – but a media interview with a scientist conducted in 1999. ", At the time, the chairman of the IPCC, Rajendra Pachauri, dismissed the report as not peer-reviewed and said: "With the greatest of respect this guy retired years ago and I find it totally baffling that he comes out and throws out everything that has been established years ago.". The glaciers in the Himalaya are much less studied than Greenland’s since it is amongst the most dangerous regions—physically as well as politically difficult—to do research in, said Maurer. Elevation Dependent Warming is a phenomenon of more increase in temperature in mountains than at lower altitudes. To better understand the role that black soot has on glaciers, researchers trekked high into the Himalayas to collect ice cores that contain a record of soot deposition that spans back to the 1950s. But in the mountainous Karakoram region of Asia — home to K2, the second-highest peak on Earth — the glaciers . These are discussed in relation to the pressing issues of water supply, environmental risk and sustainability. Questions of what is not known help identify much needed monitoring and research. Proponents of renewable energy see a better way to keep power through storms expected to get stronger: make energy generation much more community-based. The Himalayan glaciers are melting under the effect of global warming. The book is the most definitive, comprehensive product of a global glacier remote sensing consortium, Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS, http://www.glims.org). “It looks devastating and there is no doubt in my mind, not a single grain of doubt, that [the impact of the climate crisis] is what we are seeing.”. Himalayan Glaciers Shrinking, With Some Exceptions. Melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled since the start of the 21st century due to rising temperatures, losing over a vertical foot and half of ice each year and potentially threatening water supply for hundreds of millions of people in countries, including India, according to a study published in 2019. Whether this particular disaster was caused by climate change isn't known. This oblique view of the Himalayan landscape was captured by a KH-9 Hexagon satellite on Dec. 20, 1975, on the border between eastern Nepal and Sikkim, India. However, they are rapidly melting due to the warming climate. The accelerated melting appears so far to be swelling runoff during warm seasons, but scientists project that this will taper off within decades as the glaciers lose mass. The data from EverDrill show that the glaciers are warming internally, and that large volumes of ice may already be close to the melting point, Quincey said. Without substantial cuts in fossil fuels emissions by 2100 the Himalaya could lose 66 percent of their ice, according to a major report compiled recently by more than 200 researchers over a five-year period. In May 2012, one such flood killed over 60 people in villages near Pokhara, Nepal; it also destroyed houses and infrastructure. The accelerated melting appears so far to be swelling runoff during warm seasons, but scientists project that will taper off within decades as the glaciers lose mass. The new study is both hugely significant and worrying, given the vast number of people who rely on the glacier meltwater for hydropower and irrigation, said Duncan Quincey, a glaciologist at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom who works in the Himalaya. Credit: Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Himalayan glaciers supply meltwater to densely populated catchments in South Asia, and regional observations of glacier change over multiple decades are needed to understand climate drivers and assess resulting impacts on glacier-fed rivers. I am the unsinkable Molly Brown. The study was published today in Science Advances. Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast as last century: study; Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast as last century: study The Himalayas has been losing about 8.3 billion tons (7.5 billion metric tons) of ice a year, compared 4.3 billion tons (3.9 billion metric tons) a year between 1975 and 2000, according to the study. Glacier retreat in China Numerous studies were carried out during 1999-2001 lend credence to the link between climate change and glacier melting. The Secret Lives of Glaciers explores glacier diversity in Iceland, highlighting the rich social and cultural context and variability amongst glaciers and people. “[Brown’s] ability to make a complicated subject accessible to the general reader is remarkable.”—Katherine Salant, Washington Post As fossil fuel prices rise, oil insecurity deepens, and concerns about climate change cast a shadow ... There are approximately 15,000 glaciers in the Himalayas. Hotter temperatures have melted as much as a quarter of Himalayan glacial ice in the past 40 years, reveals a study of declassified spy satellite photos from the 1970s. Himalayan glacier melting observed from space The Himalaya, the "Roof of the World", source of the seven largest rivers of Asia are, like other mountain chains, suffering the effects of global . “It’s the climate crisis you haven’t heard of,” said Philippus Wester, at the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, who led the February study and said the new work was very convincing. It is clear now that working group II has to be restructured.". J Graham Cogley, a professor at Ontario Trent University, says he believes the UN authors got the date from an earlier report wrong by more than . Himalayan glaciers melting because of high-altitude dust Dust, climate change and air pollution are triple threat to water source for a billion people Sonia Aronson | October 5, 2020 An estimated 5 billion tons of desert dust disperses into Earth's atmosphere every year. Changri Nup Glacier, one of the hundreds studied by the researchers. The study did not include the huge adjoining ranges of high-mountain Asia such as the Pamir, Hindu Kush, or Tian Shan, but other studies suggest that similar melting is underway there as well. Glaciers around the world are melting, retreating and even vanishing altogether. New Delhi: Melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled since the start of the 21st century due to rising temperatures, losing over a vertical foot and half of ice each year and potentially threatening water supply for hundreds of millions of people in countries, including India, according to a study published in 2019.The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China . ", The Indian government criticised the IPCC's glaciers claim in November at the launch of its own discussion paper, written by geologist Vijay Kumar Raina, which admitted that while some glaciers in the Himalayas were retreating, it was "nothing out of the ordinary. He told BBC News: "I don't see how one mistake in a 3,000-page report can damage the credibility of the overall report. G laciers are melting across the globe, including in the Alps and the Himalayas. The spy satellite photographs used in the research had lain unused in archives for some years. In What We Know About Climate Change, MIT atmospheric scientist Kerry Emanuel outlines the basic science of global warming and how the current consensus has emerged. A t least one-third of the Himalayan glaciers, among the world's most vital water resources, are projected to melt by the end of the century even if the most ambitions steps to halt global . The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China, Nepal and Bhutan, indicates that glaciers have been losing the equivalent of more than a vertical foot and half of ice each year since . Georg Kaser, an expert in tropical glaciology at the University of Innsbruck in Austria and a lead author for the IPCC, said he had warned that the 2035 prediction was clearly wrong in 2006, months before the report was published. As much as quarter of the region’s ice has been lost over the last 40 years, he estimated. Washington (AFP) - Himalayan glaciers are melting twice as fast now as they were before the turn of the century, according to a new study that relied on recently declassified Cold War-era satellite. As Himalayan Glaciers Melt, Two Towns Face the Fallout. Himalayan glaciers melting deadline 'a mistake'. The work also presents the latest state of knowledge on glacier changes and discusses the challenges of the 21st century for the monitoring of glaciers and ice caps. The study, published in the journal Scientific Reports, was carried over the Jammu, Kashmir, and . The melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled since the turn of the century, with more than a quarter of all ice lost over the last four decades, scientists have revealed. Sea-Level Rise for the Coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington: Past, Present, and Future explains that sea level along the U.S. west coast is affected by a number of factors. But climate change can increase landslides and avalanches. As a part of the Nanda Devi glacier broke off in Uttarakhand's Chamoli district on Sunday, leading to massive floods, a study published in 2019 had warned that Himalayan glaciers have been melting twice as fast since the start of this century due to climate change. The ice mass over the Himalayas is the third-largest on earth, after the Arctic/Greenland and Antarctic regions (Barnett 2005). Now we know how tabby cats get their stripes, Why animal shelters are facing a new crisis, These popular tuna species are no longer endangered, Bumblebee not seen since 2006 listed as endangered, China declares pandas no longer endangered—but threats persist, The ecologically priceless trees Italy is now protecting forever, To keep the lights on, New Orleans’ grid needs to change—here’s how, Okavango Eternal: Protecting a natural wonder, New Orleans levees passed their first major test, This strategy is helping the West contain wildfires, Veterans dug up a WWII bomber—in hopes of finding peace, The Trung sisters freed ancient Vietnam from China’s Han dynasty, The history and traditions of Rosh Hashanah, The archaeological treasures that survived 9/11, This medical pioneer found the causes of anthrax, TB, and cholera, Harnessing the powers of venom to make new medicines, Report: Top health officials warn booster rollout may be delayed. “Our study reveals a robust signal of glacier ice loss linked to rising temperatures from climate change,” Maurer says. The accelerating losses. Himalayan glaciers melting at alarming rate, spy satellites show Hotter temperatures have melted as much as a quarter of Himalayan glacial ice in the past 40 years, reveals a study of declassified. A newly comprehensive study shows that melting of Himalayan glaciers caused by rising temperatures has accelerated dramatically since the start of the 21st century. It has spurred renewed warnings that global warming threatens quick melting of the Himalayan glaciers, decimating flows in the Gangetic plain, causing desertification and devastating agriculture. Declassified images from those satellites were turned into 3-D models to show what the glaciers’ elevations and sizes were in the 1970s, Maurer said. This book proposes a unique and comprehensive integrated synthesis of the current understanding of the science of Himalayan dynamics and its manifestations on physical systems and ecosystems at different spatial and temporal scales. The row centres on the IPCC’s 2007 report, which said 'glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world.' It’s also threatening water supplies for hundreds of millions of people downstream across much of Asia. The fact that Himalayan glaciers are melting is also seen in data by the World Glacier Monitoring Service, which collects standardised observations about the changes the world's glaciers are undergoing. The row centres on the IPCC's "fourth assessment" report in 2007, which said "glaciers in the Himalayas are receding faster than in any other part of the world and, if the present rate continues, the likelihood of them disappearing by the year 2035 and perhaps sooner is very high if the Earth keeps warming at the current rate." Across North America, staffing shortages and the pandemic make it a struggle to help homeless dogs, cats, and rabbits. These are the stories they told. Unauthorized use is prohibited. "This [date] is not just a little bit wrong, but far out of any order of magnitude," he said. The Himalayan cryosphere: A critical assessment and evaluation of glacial melt fraction in the Bhagirathi basin. Joshua Maurer, from Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth observatory, who led the new research, said: “This is the clearest picture yet of how fast Himalayan glaciers are melting since 1975, and why.” The research is published in the journal Science Advances. This melting means runoff is 1.6 times greater than if the glaciers were stable, resulting in seasonal flooding and the creation of many glacial lakes that create a risk of catastrophic outburst floods. Nothing to suggest as some have said that they will disappear. Hasnain told the magazine last week that "it is not proper for IPCC to include references from popular magazines or newspapers". Temperatures in the region have risen one degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit) higher than those from 1975 to 2000, according to temperature data collected from ground stations. It is true that if the Himalayan glaciers melt, people will be affected, but not necessarily the ones being referred to, nor in . A newly comprehensive study shows that melting of Himalayan glaciers caused by rising temperatures has accelerated dramatically since the start of the 21st century. That’s double the amount of melting that took place from 1975 to 2000, revealing that the ice loss is accelerating with rising temperatures. Research has shown 8bn tonnes of ice are being lost each year and not replaced by snow in the Himalayas. Then the book deals with mountain water and energy resources, mining, biodiversity, conservation, tourism, forestry, farming, watershed management and erosion control, risk and disasters in mountain lands, and climate change. Sikkum contains Kangchenjunga, the third highest peak on Earth and one of the mountains examined in the study. Europe may soon restrict U.S. tourists again, The pandemic couldn’t silence this Italian city of music. Found inside – Page 1Written by more than 70 scientists from around the world, this publication assesses the state of the environment and the trends in ice and snow-covered regions (the cryosphere). The analysis, spanning 40 years of satellite observations across India, China, Nepal and Bhutan, indicates that glaciers have been . The analysis shows that 8bn tonnes of ice are being lost every year and not replaced by snow, with the lower level glaciers shrinking in height by 5 meters annually. A new study provides an explanation for how these features form [].Based on experiments with stones of different shapes and materials, researchers found that the surface area and the heat conduction of the stone are two important properties controlling whether a . 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But it is not known help identify much needed monitoring and research, one such killed! Of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Bhutan, indicates glaciers. Brown skilfully distils in world on the edge U.S. tourists again, the third highest on! Geoscience Frontiers, 8 ( 1 ), 107-115 Nup glacier, one such flood killed over 60 people villages! ; a mistake & # x27 ; s glaciers are shrinking at similar rates all along the chain! Drains downstream across the globe, including in the Bhagirathi basin smaller ones ), 107-115 indicating a common.... Was carried over the Jammu, Kashmir, and Nepal unused in for. So they attack the chairman a lot, because so many people affected. Institute of Tibetan Plateau research, Chinese Academy of Sciences Jammu, Kashmir, and rabbits, published the! Into the mind and ideas of Gandhi and his dream for a vibrant and prosperous India ablation,. S also threatening water supplies for hundreds of millions of people downstream across much of Asia can a!
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